| E-manufacturing |
| E-manufacturing is concerned with the use of the Internet and e-business technologies in manufacturing industries. Manufacturing business are using the Internet in many different ways - to work with partners and suppliers, for procurement, for internal activities and so on |
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| Overview |
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| E-manufacturing covers all aspects of manufacturing - sales, marketing, customer service, new product development, procurement, supplier relationships, logistics, manufacturing, strategy development and so on. The Internet also affects products as well since it is possible to use Internet technologies to add new product functions and to provide new services. |
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| Manufacturing companies are using the Internet successfully for many different purposes. The scope of applications is large. Certain applications such as supply chain management, procurement, trade exchanges, and of course on-line sales have attracted a lot of attention in the press. However, this should not blind people to the fact that the Internet and e-business technologies can be used to support all aspects of manufacturing enterprises' activities. The challenge is to find the right application at the right time. |
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| Application of the Internet is not a one-off project, but a journey that involves dealing with technologies, strategies, business processes, organisation and people. Success will come to those firms adopting an integrated approach driven by business needs and opportunities. |
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| E-manufacturing benefits |
| Manufacturing business of all sizes in all sectors are using the Internet in many different ways - to work with partners and suppliers, for procurement, for internal activities such as knowledge sharing and new product development and much more. |
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| Companies such as United Technologies, General Electric and many others are reporting benefits from the use of the Internet. These benefits include: |
| improved speed of response; |
| cost savings; |
| improved communications, information and knowledge sharing; |
| reductions in inventory; |
| improved efficiency and productivity; |
| harmonisation and standardisation of procedures; |
| better transfer of best practices; |
| acquisition of new customers and increased sales; |
| improved customer service. |
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| However the benefits are achieved not by technology (which is an enabler) but by addressing strategy, technology, organisation, people and business processes as an integrated whole and making changes in all these dimensions. The Internet is just like other information technologies - change management, good implementation practices and clear business objectives are required in order to reap the full benefits. |
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| Computer-aided Manufacturing |
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| Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer-based software tools that assist engineers and machinists in manufacturing or prototyping product components. CAM is a programming tool that allows you to manufacture physical models using computer-aided design (CAD) programs. CAM creates real life versions of components designed within a software package. CAM was first used in 1971 for car body design and tooling. |
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| Overview |
| Traditionally, CAM has been considered as an NC programming tool wherein 3D models of components generated in CAD software are used to generate CNC code to drive numerical controlled machine tools. |
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| Although this remains the most common CAM function, CAM functions have expanded to integrate CAM more fully with CAD/CAM/CAE PLM solutions. |
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| As with other "Computer-Aided" technologies, CAM does not eliminate the need for skilled professionals such as Manufacturing Engineers and NC Programmers. CAM, in fact, both leverages the value of the most skilled manufacturing professionals through advanced productivity tools, while building the skills of new professionals through visualization, simulation and optimization tools. |
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| Historical Shortcomings |
| Historically, CAM software was seen to have several shortcomings that necessitated an overly high level of involvement by skilled CNC machinists. CAM software would output code for the least capable machine, as each machine tool interpreter added on to the standard g-code set for increased flexibility. In some cases, such as improperly set up CAM software or specific tools, the CNC machine required manual editing before the program will run properly. None of these issues were so insurmountable that a thoughtful engineer could not overcome for prototyping or small production runs; G-Code is a simple language. In high production or high precision shops, a different set of problems were encountered where an experienced CNC machinist must both hand-code programs and run CAM software. |
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| Integration of CAD with other components of CAD/CAM/CAE PLM environment requires an effective CAD data exchange. Usually it had been necessary to force the CAD operator to export the data in one of the common data formats, such as IGES or STL, that are supported by a wide variety of software. The output from the CAM software is usually a simple text file of G-code, sometimes many thousands of commands long, that is then transferred to a machine tool using a direct numerical control (DNC) program. |
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| CAM packages could not, and still cannot, reason as a machinist can. They could not optimize toolpaths to the extent required of mass production. Users would select the type of tool, machining process and paths to be used. While an engineer may have a working knowledge of g-code programming, small optimization and wear issues compound over time. Mass-produced items that require machining are often initially created through casting or some other non-machine method. This enables hand-written, short, and highly optimized g-code that could not be produced in a CAM package. |
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| At least in the United States, there is a shortage of young, skilled machinists entering the workforce able to perform at the extremes of manufacturing; high precision and mass production. As CAM software and machines become more complicated, the skills required of a machinist advance to approach that of a computer programmer and engineer rather than eliminating the CNC machinist from the workforce. |
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| Typical areas of concern: |
| High Speed Machining, including streamlining of tool paths |
| Multi-function Machining |
| 5 Axis Machining |
| Ease of Use |
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| Overcoming Historical Shortcomings |
| Over time, the historical shortcomings of CAM are being attenuated, both by providers of niche solutions and by providers of high-end solutions. This is occurring primarily in three arenas: |
1. Ease of use
2. Manufacturing complexity
3. Integration with PLM and the extended enterprise |
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| Ease of Use |
| For the user who is just getting started as a CAM user, out-of-the-box capabilities providing Process Wizards, templates, libraries, machine tool kits, automated feature based machining and job function specific tailorable user interfaces build user confidence and speed the learning curve. User confidence is further built on 3D visualization through a closer integration with the 3D CAD environment, including error-avoiding simulations and optimizations. |
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| Manufacturing Complexity |
| The manufacturing environment is increasingly complex. The need for CAM and PLM tools by the manufacturing engineer, NC programmer or machinist is similar to the need for computer assistance by the pilot of modern aircraft systems. The modern machinery cannot be properly used without this assistance. Today's CAM systems support the full range of machine tools including: turning, 5 axis machining and wire EDM. Today's CAM user can easily generate streamlined tool paths, optimized tool axis tilt for higher feed rates and optimized Z axis depth cuts as well as driving non-cutting operations such as the specification of probing motions. |
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| Integration with PLM and the extended enterprise |
| Today's competitive and successful companies have used PLM to integrate manufacturing with enterprise operations from concept through field support of the finished product. To ensure ease of use appropriate to user objectives, modern CAM solutions are scalable from a stand-alone CAM system to a fully integrated multi-CAD 3D solution-set. These solutions are created to meet the full needs of manufacturing personnel including part planning, shop documentation, resource management and data management and exchange. |
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| Machining process |
| Most machining progresses through four stages, each of which is implemented by a variety of basic and sophisticated strategies, depending on the material and the software available. The stages are: |
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Roughing
This process begins with raw stock, known as billet, and cuts it very roughly to shape of the final model. In milling, the result often gives the appearance of terraces, because the strategy has taken advantage of the ability to cut the model horizontally. Common strategies are zig-zag clearing, offset clearing, plunge roughing, rest-roughing.
Semi-finishing
This process begins with a roughed part that unevenly approximates the model and cuts to within a fixed offset distance from the model. The semi-finishing pass must leave a small amount of material so the tool can cut accurately while finishing, but not so little that the tool and material deflect instead of shearing. Common strategies are raster passes, waterline passes, constant step-over passes, pencil milling.
Finishing
Finishing involves a slow pass across the material in very fine steps to produce the finished part. In finishing, the step between one pass and another is minimal. Feed rates are low and spindle speeds are raised to produce an accurate surface.
Contour Milling
In milling applications on hardware with five or more axes, a separate finishing process called contouring can be performed. Instead of stepping down in fine-grained increments to approximate a surface, the work piece is rotated to make the cutting surfaces of the tool tangent to the ideal part features. This produces an excellent surface finish with high dimensional accuracy. |
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| Computer Integrated Manufacturing |
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| Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is a method of manufacturing in which the entire production process is controlled by computer. Typically, it relies on closed-loop control processes, based on real-time input from sensors. It is also known as flexible design and manufacturing. |
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| Three components distinguish CIM from other manufacturing methodologies: |
| means for data storage, retrieval, manipulation and presentation; |
| mechanisms for sensing state and modifying processes; |
| Algorithms for uniting the data processing component with the sensor/modification component. |
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| A computer-automated system in which individual engineering, production, marketing, and support functions of a manufacturing enterprise are organized; functional areas such as design, analysis, planning, purchasing, cost accounting, inventory control, and distribution are linked through the computer with factory floor functions such as materials handling and management, providing direct control and monitoring of all process operations. |
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| Digital Manufacturing |
| In the 1980s, Computer Integrated Manufacturing was developed and promoted by machine tool manufacturers and the CASA/SME (Computer and Automated Systems Association /Society for Manufacturing Engineers). |
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| A CIM system is not the same as a "lights out" factory, which would run completely independent of human intervention, although it is a big step in that direction. Part of the system involves flexible manufacturing, where the factory can be quickly modified to produce different products, or where the volume of products can be changed quickly with the aid of computers. Some or all of the following subsystems may be found in a CIM operation: |
| CAD/CAM (Computer-aided design/Computer-aided manufacturing) |
| CAPP, (Computer-aided process planning) |
| ERP (Enterprise resource planning) |
| CNC (computer numerical control) machine tools |
| DNC, direct numerical control machine tools |
| FMS, flexible machining systems |
| ASRS, automated storage and retrieval systems |
| AGV, automated guided vehicles |
| Robotics |
| Automated conveyance systems |
| Project management software / computerized scheduling and production control |
| CAQ (Computer-aided quality assurance) |
| A business system integrated by a common database. |
| Lean Manufacturing |
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| Key Challenges |
| There are three major challenges to development of a smoothly operating CIM system: |
| Integration of components from different suppliers: When different machines, such as CNC, conveyors and robots, are using different communications protocols. In the case of AGVs, even differing lengths of time for charging the batteries may cause problems. |
| Data integrity: The higher the degree of automation, the more critical is the integrity of the data used to control the machines. While the CIM system saves on labor of operating the machines, it requires extra human labor in ensuring that there are proper safeguards for the data signals that are used to control the machines. |
| Process control: Computers may be used to assist the human operators of the manufacturing facility, but there must always be a competent engineer on hand to handle circumstances which could not be foreseen by the designers of the control software. |
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| CIM |
| A computer-automated system in which individual engineering, production, marketing, and support functions of a manufacturing enterprise are organized; functional areas such as design, analysis, planning, purchasing, cost accounting, inventory control, and distribution are linked through the computer with factory floor functions such as materials handling and management, providing direct control and monitoring of all process operations. |
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| Process Manufacturing |
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| Process Manufacturing is the branch of manufacturing that is associated with formulas or manufacturing recipes as compared to bills of material & routing as in the case of discrete manufacturing. |
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| Defining Process Manufacturing |
| The simplest and easiest to grasp definition of process manufacturing is that, once the output is produced, it cannot be distilled back to its basic components. In other words, once you put it together, you cannot take it apart. Think about it. Once you make a can of soda, you cannot return it back to its basic components such as carbonated water, citric acid, potassium benzoate, aspartame, and other ingredients. You cannot put the juice back into the orange. A car or computer, on the other hand, can be disassembled and the parts, to a large extent, can be returned to stock. Process manufacturing is common in the food, beverage, chemical, pharmaceutical, consumer packaged goods, and biotechnology industries. In process manufacturing, we talk about ingredients, not parts; formulas, not bill of materials; and bulk, not EA(each)'s. You may think that we are simply mincing words and terminology. But, as we will see later on this discussion, there is more than a subtle difference in their impact on manufacturing. |
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| Some process manufacturing verticals |
| Food & beverage |
| Paint & coating |
| Specialty chemical |
| Bulk-drug pharmaceutical |
| Nutraceutical |
| Cosmeceutical |
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| Formulation |
| Formulation is a fairly easy concept but don't think it is the same as a bill of materials. And be leery of the vendor who says you can. Formulation specifies the ingredients and their proportions (i.e. pounds, gallons, liters) needed to make the product. The first thing that you realize is that measurements are different. To be able to work with a formula, you need a flexible unit of measure conversion engine running under the ERP software covers. Furthermore, you must be able to specify your own conversion rules to account for the unique requirements of your business. |
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| Proportions of ingredients in a formula also highlight the need for another feature, namely scalability. Recalling that line about the Army cook who can only make meatloaf that feeds 500, a formula to make 500 liters of a chemical must be scalable to make 250 liters or 1,000 liters. Another aspect of scalability is the ability to make based on what you have. An example will illustrate this point. If you are making a car and you only have two of the required four tires, you cannot make half of a car. In other words, you must have all of the parts in their required quantities to make the finished product. What would you do in process manufacturing if you want to make 1,000 gallons of soda but you only have 500 gallons of the required 1,000 gallons of carbonated water? You have the option of making half of the 1,000 gallons of soda. In process manufacturing you can make the most of a finished product based on the least quantity of an ingredient in stock. The simplest and easiest to grasp definition of process manufacturing is that, once the output is produced, it cannot be distilled back to its basic components. In other words, once you put it together, you cannot take it apart. |
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| Packaging |
| A packaging recipe is similar to a formula but describes how the finished product goes through its final assembly. A packaging recipe addresses such things as containers, labels, corrugated, and shrink-wrap. In process manufacturing, the finished product usually is made in bulk but is rarely delivered in bulk form to the customer. For example, the beverage manufacturer makes soda in batches of thousands of gallons. However, as a consumer, when you buy soda, you can buy it in 12-ounce aluminum cans, 16-ounce plastic bottles, or 1-liter bottles. If you are restaurateur, you may have the option getting a 5 or 50-gallon metal containers that keep the beverage in syrup form so that carbonated water can be added later. |
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| Why is this concept important? How often do you think that Coke Cola changes the formula for Coke? On the other hand, how often do they change the packaging to announce a special promotion? It would be easier to keep track of the weather than promotions. If the formula and packaging recipes are combined, every time the packaging changes, maintenance of the formula would be required. Likewise, when the formula is changed, all of the recipes would have to be changed. This increases the maintenance and chances for error. In process manufacturing, the formula to make the product and the recipe to pack the product should exist in separate structures to reduce the ongoing maintenance function. |
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| In the production cycle, a work order is issued to make the product in bulk. Separate pack orders are issued to signify how the bulk material is to be containerized and shipped to the customer. This is important in process industries which make "brite" stock or private labels. For example, large grocery chains sell products, such as soups, soda, and meats, under their own brand names, hence private labels. Don't think, however, that these chains have their own manufacturing plants. Chains contract for these products. In the case of soups, process manufacturers create and warehouse non-descript, non-labeled aluminum cans of soup, hence "brite" stock. (Since the cans are filled, sealed, and, then, cooked under pressure, their shelf life can be expressed in months.) |
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| By separating the product formula from a packaging recipe, a production order can be issued to make the cans of soup and, when the customer is ready to receive the soup, a work order can be issued to label the cans according to the customer specifications. Hopefully, you can see why the segregation of the formula and pack recipe works efficiently and effectively in the world of process manufacturing. |
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| Process Manufacturing Software |
| Just like the products that they produce, discrete and processing manufacturing software have different focal points and solve different problems. Just as you would not put the proverbial square peg in the round hole, don't expect to be successful using software geared toward discrete, or even a hybrid, to work smoothly in the process manufacturing setting. Even process manufacturing software need to be investigated in your business context. Critical aspects such as formulation, routing, ingredients, unit of measures, and pricing must be evaluated relative your business. |
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| TQM in manufacturing |
| Quality assurance through statistical methods is a key component in a manufacturing organization, where TQM generally starts by sampling a random selection of the product. The sample can then be tested for things that matter most to the end users. The causes of any failures are isolated, secondary measures of the production process are designed, and then the causes of the failure are corrected. The statistical distributions of important measurements are tracked. When parts' measures drift into a defined "error band", the process is fixed. The error band has usually a tighter distribution than the "failure band", so that the production process is fixed before failing parts can be produced. |
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| It is important to record not just the measurement ranges, but what failures caused them to be chosen. In that way, cheaper fixes can be substituted later (say, when the product is redesigned) with no loss of quality. After TQM has been in use, it's very common for parts to be redesigned so that critical measurements either cease to exist, or become much wider. |
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| It took people a while to develop tests to find emergent problems. One popular test is a "life test" in which the sample product is operated until a part fails. Another popular test is called "shake and bake", in which the product is mounted on a vibrator in an environmental oven, and operated at progressively more extreme vibration and temperatures until something fails. The failure is then isolated and engineers design an improvement. |
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| A commonly-discovered failure is for the product to disintegrate. If fasteners fail, the improvements might be to use measured-tension nutdrivers to ensure that screws don't come off, or improved adhesives to ensure that parts remain glued. |
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| If a gearbox wears out first, a typical engineering design improvement might be to substitute a brushless stepper motor for a DC motor with a gearbox. |
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